Abstract
This study explores how female university students navigate the interplay between the pleasure that alcohol gives them and the risks to their sexual safety it poses. This mixed-method study employed an open-ended questionnaire administered by a student-researcher. The sample comprised 76 voluntary female students who reported consuming alcohol. The findings indicate that women who consume alcohol exercise personal agency in their self-expression, yet they do so within a context of gender and sexual violence. Participants articulated various strategies for mitigating risks to their sexual safety while drinking, such as consuming alcohol within supportive social networks, avoiding financial dependence, and regulating their alcohol intake.
Contribution: This article contends that alcohol consumption at university plays a significant role in the expression of gender and sexuality, offering both pleasure and risk. Consequently, arguments about equality must acknowledge risk-taking as an inherent aspect of university life for young adults and prioritise strategies for managing alcohol-related risks rather than simply advocating for blanket prohibitions on alcohol use.
Keywords: alcohol-related pleasure; gender norms; female students; negotiating risk; sexual risk.
Introduction
Entering higher education represents a pivotal moment in a young person’s life, marked by increased independence and personal responsibility (Burke et al. 2023; Choudhry et al. 2022). The transition to university represents not only a shift in geographical space but also a profound sociocultural shift that allows for the exploration of new identities. Universities typically provide spaces where students can explore, express, and experience their sexuality with relatively limited sexual surveillance. However, universities have also been identified as environments where sexual violence, particularly against women, is pervasive, both in South Africa and globally (Makhaye, Mkhize & Sibanyoni 2023; Mudaly et al. 2021; Phipps 2020; Senn et al. 2021; World Health Organization [WHO] 2021).
Alcohol consumption plays a prominent role in university students’ lives worldwide (Anitha et al. 2020; Nekgotha, Nel & Govender 2020). Scholars have noticed the association between alcohol use and young people’s engagement with sexuality, where drinking is often perceived as a normative aspect of development (Livingstone et al. 2013). Furthermore, Livingstone et al. (2013:20) argue that performances of sexuality associated with alcohol consumption frequently result in ‘unsanctioned sexual behaviour’. This is also evident in the studies that show that alcohol consumption, whether by victims or perpetrators, is involved in a significant proportion of sexual assaults on university campuses (De Bruijn & De Graaf 2016; Hirsch & Khan 2020; Kefale et al. 2021). While not all instances of sexual violence are preceded by alcohol use, the frequent co-occurrence suggests a correlation between alcohol and some forms of sexual violation (Ison et al. 2024; Ramsoomar et al. 2021; Wilson et al. 2024).
For women, however, alcohol consumption is often linked to problematic behaviour and heightened sexual risk. Drinking continues to be a masculinised activity, and women who drink alcohol stray from the norms of femininity and are often shamed. According to Shefer and Munt (2019), who interrogated the feminist politics of shame, shame and shaming reflect, reinforce and legitimise social inequality. Even though alcohol may provide women with a source of pleasure (Foley, Ward & Lunnay 2024; Rolfe, Orford & Dalton 2009), research on gender and substance use has frequently overlooked this dimension, focusing instead on risks (Taft et al. 2019; Wilsnack, Wilsnack & Kantor 2014). Recognising the danger of framing risk management in ways that place the responsibility solely on women to prevent victimisation, this article centres on female students’ agency in managing risk while engaging in self-discovery.
Women who consume alcohol exercise their freedom of expression and participate in activities integral to campus life. However, they do so within a context shaped by the risk of gendered and sexual violence. The gendered portrayal of women as passive, submissive, and helpless victims perpetuates gender inequality (Jewkes et al. 2012; Shefer et al. 2018). It is, therefore, crucial to understand that young women possess the capacity to express their sexuality and are not merely victims (Parkes 2015).
In the South African context of high rates of gender and sexual violence rooted in patriarchal cultural norms and gendered power structures, while acknowledging women’s rights and capacities to make choices, it is essential to recognise the reality of risk in environments where women are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence. This study is, therefore, situated within broader considerations of risk and risk-taking in contemporary society. Although the sample comprises black South African women, the focus is not on black femininities but rather on the experiences, observations, and understandings of the voluntary sample of women as they navigate the pleasures and risks associated with alcohol consumption in the South African university context.
Privileging the voices of young women and understanding their perspectives on the risks of sexual violence are critical for supporting their rights and well-being, as well as for informing effective strategies to address campus violence. By highlighting women’s pleasure in alcohol consumption and their strategies for risk management, this article shifts the focus away from moral judgements of ‘immoral’ women (who deserve to be violated), emphasising their agency in disrupting dominant norms of femininity and resisting sexist attitudes.
Literature review and theoretical framework
Gender and alcohol at universities
Alcohol consumption is a gendered activity, often viewed as a marker of masculinity and associated with male risk-taking. In many societies, women’s bodies are regularly policed and controlled, and they enjoy less freedom, even in university settings where autonomy is encouraged. Globally, the freedoms that include partying and drinking differ by gender and often reproduce dominant gender norms (Bhana & Pillay 2018; Weinzimmer & Twill 2015). Female students, in particular, who experience greater regulation in schools and homes encounter newfound opportunities for social activities such as partying, dating, and drinking at university. However, these freedoms are limited, as they operate within a network of gender inequality and fears related to their sexual well-being (Bhana & Pillay 2018).
Women’s capacity for self-determination is further constrained by ‘victim-blaming’, where acting outside of societal norms may lead to additional disadvantages, such as discouragement from reporting harm or seeking social and legal support (Wilson et al. 2022).
Women, alcohol, risk, and pleasure
Alcohol plays a significant role in young South African women’s sexuality and is often linked to heightened vulnerability to male coercion and sexual risk (Bhana & Anderson 2013). Studies, such as Kefale et al. (2021) with Ethiopian female university students, have documented high rates of sexual violence, with alcohol consumption being a contributing factor. In the UK, Phipps (2018) found sexual violence to be prevalent in higher education institutions, where ‘Lad culture’, characterised by heavy drinking, creates an environment conducive to sexual assault. Similarly, Hirsch and Khan (2020) in the US found that alcohol, along with drug culture, reinforces gender norms that normalise sexual violence against female students, with intoxicated women at increased risk of sexual violation.
Research consistently demonstrates that alcohol users are more likely to engage in high-risk sexual behaviours, making them more vulnerable to health-related risks (Basile et al. 2021; Burke et al. 2023; Morojele et al. 2010). Studies focusing on women and risk have identified alcohol as a critical factor in women’s susceptibility to sexual violence and risky behaviour (Commission for Gender Equality 2018; Mellins et al. 2017; Phipps 2020). A multi-country study by the WHO also found a strong correlation between alcohol use and experiences of violence across nations (WHO 2018). Nonetheless, there is no conclusive evidence that alcohol directly causes violence (Anitha et al. 2020). Importantly, as noticed by Burke et al. (2023:14), ‘victims of sexual violence are in no way responsible for an assault, even if incapacitated through substance use’.
Research that looked at health, risk, and pleasure mostly underplayed pleasure but cautioned that when health is conceptualised through the lens of risk, it tends to be framed as an individual responsibility, which can unfairly shift the burden onto women to avoid such risks (Månsson & Bogren 2014). Månsson and Bogren (2014) argue that preventing health risks is a complex process, as it requires navigating conflicting sources of knowledge. Their review of media portrayals of women and alcohol identified multiple ways in which women’s drinking is framed as risky, including biological risks (e.g., unintended pregnancy), sexual risks (e.g., sexually transmitted infections or victimisation), social risks (e.g., moral judgement), and health risks (e.g., alcohol addiction). The focus on women’s reproductive health often overshadows other aspects of their lives, reinforcing their primary role as reproducers.
Several South African studies have similarly focused on biological risks associated with alcohol use in women’s lives (Morojele et al. 2010; Vythilingum et al. 2012). Research on alcohol consumption and gender violence in South African universities has also established strong links between alcohol use and unwanted sexual experiences (Layland et al. 2019; Mudaly et al. 2021; Ngubane & Singh 2021). Alcohol drinking among female university students has also been associated with pleasure and leisure (Foley et al. 2024; Rolfe et al. 2009). However, there is a notable lack of research on the social benefits of alcohol consumption for women and how they actively negotiate risks within this context.
This study uses feminist principles and practices to challenge gendered inequalities that legitimate and facilitate violence against women. It recognises that gender violence is not enacted and experienced in the same way in every setting. It draws on the work of Campbell and Mannell (2016), who focused on how women’s agency is conceptualised in highly coercive settings. Their work seeks to disrupt the tendency to conceptualise women’s agency in terms of actions by individual women without attention to the economic, social and cultural contexts that make such actions challenging. They state that there is often severe stigmatisation of women who speak out against violence rather than endure it. Campbell and Mannell (2016) reject the unhelpful and often damaging conceptualisations of gender and power in the binary distinctions of ‘men-women’ and ‘victim-agent’ that underpin many interventions against gender violence. They argue that these often obscure the multifaceted forms of agency in women’s responses to violence and the complexity of the agency-violence intersection and that in neglecting this complexity, many intervention strategies are out of sync with women’s actual experiences. They recognise that the idea of independent and powerful women exercising control over their own lives is obviously a vital long-term ideal for policy and intervention. However, there is often blindness to the obstacles to this idealised notion of agency.
This conceptualisation is helpful in this study to analyse how gender power is negotiated by young female students in a setting that is considered risky in relation to their sexual safety.
Research methods and design
The analysis in this article derives from a broader research project examining alcohol use at South African universities. A mixed-method design was used for the project. This article has a strong emphasis on the qualitative aspect supplemented by quantitative data. Although alcohol consumption is officially prohibited on campus, except under special permission from university authorities for specific staff and student functions, participants indicated that this regulation is often disregarded.
Purposive sampling was employed to recruit female students residing in university residences who consumed alcohol and volunteered to participate in the study. Most of the university’s student population consists of black African students, and those living in campus residences are predominantly black South Africans. Consequently, although it was not the study’s intention or part of the sampling strategy because of the demographics of this university residences, all 76 participants in the sample were black African women.
The participants ranged in age from 18 to 26. A peer researcher, a black South African postgraduate student, collaborated in developing and distributing the questionnaire. She had no power over the female students and often drank alcohol with other students. The questionnaire comprised open-ended questions.
Participants were encouraged to respond freely and were assured that the survey was for research purposes only. Informed consent was obtained in writing, and participants were assured of the voluntary nature of their participation, as well as confidentiality and anonymity. Participants were given the option to choose pseudonyms, and for those who did not, a number was assigned to their questionnaire.
The open-ended responses were read, and recurring themes were grouped and coded for both frequency and thematic analysis. In this article, I focus on themes related to female students’ perspectives on the pleasure derived from alcohol consumption, their understanding of alcohol-related sexual risks, and the strategies they employ to negotiate these risks. The richness and depth of the data collected from the open-ended responses allowed for the attainment of data saturation. Because of the anonymous nature of the survey, we could not reach the participants for verification of the interpretations. Credibility and trustworthiness were ensured by meticulous documentation of the research process and working closely with the peer researcher on the design of the survey, the presentation and the analysis of data. This small-scale study focuses on a single South African university, and it does not intend to generalise the findings to all South African female students or all black African female students.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of KwaZulu-Natal Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (No. HSS/0247/018).
Results
The findings from this study underscore the nuanced relationship that female university students have with alcohol consumption, highlighting how it intertwines with their broader social and personal experiences. This analysis focuses on three core themes developed from the data: (1) alcohol and pleasure, (2) alcohol and risk, and (3) managing risk. Each theme represents a critical aspect of the participants’ experiences with alcohol consumption in the context of university life.
Alcohol and pleasure
This theme summarises the positive associations female students have with alcohol consumption, particularly in terms of personal and social pleasure. Participants described alcohol as a medium of self-expression, social bonding, and enjoyment within the university environment.
The data on the kinds of feelings brought about by alcohol consumption reveal that most female students (84.2%) associate alcohol with positive, pleasurable experiences, such as stress relief, happiness, fun, and a sense of freedom. The responses indicate that the young women in the study view alcohol as a tool for managing stress, particularly as relief from academic pressures and personal problems. For some, it provided relaxation and a mental escape from the demands of academic life and student life in general.
For instance, Aneh expressed that alcohol does more than relieve her stress when she said, ‘To say I feel stress-free is an understatement. I always feel like everything is going to be ok’ and Ayanda shared the benefit she felt when she said that it creates a feeling of being ‘relaxed and happy, as if nothing else matters in the world’ and being in ‘my own world with no problems’. The Baddest who is one of the participants shared a common view with other participants who suggested that alcohol can be an emotional escape for students, offering temporary relief from the demands of university life. She said, ‘I feel so happy and lightheaded. It is more like my escape from reality, especially my academics and life itself’.
Many respondents expressed that drinking alcohol allowed them to break free from societal constraints or pressures, providing an opportunity to have fun and feel a sense of personal liberation. A common response was:
‘My mind becomes more relaxed. I enjoy myself and have fun with my friends. I consume it at events, and it brings excitement to me.’ (Pam, 21 years old)
This pleasure aspect was linked to the newfound freedom associated with university life, particularly for students from more regulated home environments.
Several participants found that alcohol played a crucial role in social gatherings, helping them form friendships and feel part of the university’s social fabric. For example:
‘For me, drinking is fun. With that being said, when I drink alcohol, I feel good, and my shyness stems down a bit and makes me capable of being socially active.’ (Zanele, 18 years old)
Several other participants shared this view that alcohol consumption provided an avenue for social integration and inclusion, particularly in spaces where students felt more relaxed and open.
Many female students in the sample linked alcohol with fun and social enjoyment. Drinking becomes a gateway for bonding, dancing, and overcoming inhibitions, as Zanele noticed that alcohol allows her to be more ‘socially active’ by reducing her shyness. Similarly, Sinazo shared how alcohol energises her to ‘dance, sing, laugh, and speak loudly’. These responses reflect the role of alcohol in creating a space for personal and social liberation.
However, the experience of pleasure is not devoid of ambivalence, as the data also show that some women struggle with conflicting emotions. While they appreciate the pleasure and freedom alcohol provides, there are also moments of self-criticism. For example, one participant found that although alcohol initially helps her feel stress-free, it eventually leads to regret and feeling ‘shamed’ because of how others perceive her behaviour. This highlights the social judgement and stigma often associated with women who drink, where societal norms create pressure to conform to expectations of respectable behaviour congruent with conventional norms of femininity. The ambivalence articulated by some of the participants highlights the complexities surrounding women’s agency and the ways in which their pleasure is often framed within a context of social scrutiny and self-judgement.
This theme reflects the participants’ perception of alcohol consumption as intertwined with university life. The experiences of pleasure are deeply rooted in the freedoms associated with young adulthood, self-expression, and social engagement. The participants’ responses suggest that the sense of pleasure from alcohol consumption is more than just a physical experience; it is tied to personal autonomy, social identity, and psychological well-being.
Alcohol and risk
This theme explores female students’ awareness and experiences of the risks associated with alcohol consumption, particularly the risks related to sexual safety and gender violence. The participants’ accounts show that they recognised that while alcohol provides pleasure, there is a pervasive anxiety about the potential for sexual violence, aligning with global data that highlight the increased risk of gender violence, especially for women, in university settings where alcohol use is prevalent (Mellins et al. 2017).
The survey data indicate widespread awareness (91%) of the increased risk that alcohol consumption poses to women, particularly in terms of vulnerability to gender-based violence. Participants frequently mentioned the possibility of losing control and becoming targets for male aggression as significant risks. Many respondents internalised traditional gender norms, with 46.1% stating that alcohol makes women ‘helpless’ and 15.8% describing women as physically ‘weaker’ than men. These responses reflect how gender norms shape their own and others’ perceptions of alcohol-related risks.
Consistent with other studies (such as Burke et al. 2023; Morojele et al. 2010), a substantial number of participants identified alcohol as a contributing factor to sexual assault and harassment. They expressed concern about how alcohol consumption, both by themselves and by men, made them more vulnerable to sexual violence on campus.
Some participants, such as Ande, explicitly linked women’s vulnerability to alcohol-fuelled violence with transactional expectations: ‘Girls want free drinks, and boys expect sex in return’. This comment highlights how some young women view sexual violence as an inevitable consequence of alcohol consumption, particularly in environments where men hold power through financial, social or cultural means.
The majority of the participants were aware of how gendered inequalities extend to several aspects of their lives:
‘Alcohol consumption is often viewed as problematic when it is done by females and not necessarily by males. Drinking alcohol has been masculinised, and often, females who drink [heavy drinking or frequent drinking, I argue] are viewed as rebels of the social order. When females are subjected to, amongst other things, abuse, discrimination, assault, and alcohol consumption is involved, blame is frequently shifted to the women not being able to “handle” and “protect” themselves due to the effects of alcohol. She is said to have “made” herself vulnerable and “open” to anything.’ (Velile, 24 years old)
The women in the study highlighted the societal double standards they faced as women who consumed alcohol. Velile’s response points to a broader cultural issue, where women are often blamed for the risks they encounter, including sexual violence against them, if they are intoxicated. Men, on the other hand, are excused for any transgressions, including committing sexual violence when they are intoxicated. She found that alcohol consumption is considered problematic only when done by women, reflecting the double standards that exist in society. Velile’s comment illustrates a feminist critique of victim-blaming, where women who drink are seen as ‘making themselves vulnerable’ rather than being entitled to the same freedom as men. The participants’ awareness of these double standards highlights the structural and cultural constraints that shape their behaviour, even in spaces that ostensibly promote independence and self-determination.
The young women reported feeling anxious about drinking in public or with male peers because of the possible risk of sexual assault. This fear impacted their social experiences and shaped how they managed their alcohol consumption. They pointed out that in addition to being blamed for ‘putting themselves at risk’ by choosing to drink alcohol, moralistic judgements about their transgressive behaviour are used to justify victim-blaming in cases of sexual violence.
This theme reveals the complex relationship between alcohol consumption and gendered experiences of risk. While participants acknowledged the pleasures of drinking, they were acutely aware of the dangers it posed, particularly in a university environment where gender violence, mainly against women, is prevalent. The findings highlight the intersection of alcohol, gender norms, and sexual violence, with alcohol acting as both an enabler of freedom and social interaction and a source of restriction and vulnerability for women.
Managing risk
This theme examines the strategies that female students employ to navigate the risks to their sexual safety associated with alcohol consumption while still participating in university social life. Participants demonstrated agency in negotiating these risks, employing various methods to protect themselves. These strategies align with feminist theories of agency that emphasise women’s capacity to navigate patriarchal constraints in resourceful ways (Campbell & Mannell 2016).
Participants emphasised the importance of not relying on others, particularly men, to buy their drinks, as this was perceived as a potential precursor to coercive situations. Some participants, such as Ayanda, made sure to have money for their own drinks and transport, reducing their dependence on others, particularly men who might expect something in return. This echoes research that shows young women increasingly practise their own agency by maintaining control over their social interactions and environments (Bhana & Pillay 2018):
‘I make sure that I come with 3 or more female friends of mine so that we look after each other even when one is going to the toilet. Most importantly, we make sure that we have our own transport and money to buy drinks, and we do not accept drinks from strangers.’ (Ayanda, 22 years old)
Other responses included:
‘I drink only when I am with my family, my boyfriend and my girls at res [student residences].’ (Zikhona, 22 years old)
‘I buy alcohol and start drinking in my room so that I know when I am drunk, I won’t start a fight with anyone, and I will not look helpless in front of a man. I am safe in my place.’ (Ntokozo, 23 years old)
Several participants described strategies of self-regulation, such as limiting their alcohol intake or alternating between alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, to maintain control over their behaviour and reduce vulnerability. For example:
‘Do not drink too much. Make sure your friends or people you trust are always nearby. Do not drink far from home and drink with people who you feel safe with.’ (Nompumelelo, 21 years old)
‘I pace myself when drinking. I also keep my friends close to me in case anything bad happens so that we can protect each other. I also make sure I eat because drinking on an empty stomach makes you drunk quicker.’ (Chloe, 22 years old)
Despite recognising risks, many participants indicated that they had rights and demonstrated agency in developing strategies to mitigate the dangers to their safety associated with alcohol drinking. Many participants emphasised the importance of drinking with trusted friends or in groups in safe environments as a way to manage risks. They found that these networks provided protection and accountability, with friends looking out for each other to prevent potentially dangerous situations. For instance, Asanda explained that she and her friends had a set of rules to protect each other, including never leaving a venue separately and avoiding drinks offered by strangers. This collective approach to safety highlights the importance of supportive networks among women as a key risk management strategy.
The findings of this study also reveal that risk management strategies are deeply embedded in a culture of fear and vigilance. Chloe mentioned pacing her drinking and staying aware of her surroundings as methods to maintain control and minimise risk. Nicky even took the precaution of carrying pepper spray, recognising the inevitability of danger but taking proactive measures to protect herself. These strategies demonstrate that women are aware of the precarious nature of alcohol consumption and seek to assert control within those constraints.
This theme focuses on the agency that female students exercise in managing the risks associated with alcohol consumption. While they are aware of the potential dangers, they do not see abstaining from alcohol as the solution. Instead, they adopt proactive strategies to safeguard themselves, emphasising collective support, self-regulation, and financial independence as key methods for mitigating risk. Their actions challenge the notion of women as passive victims and instead position them as active agents who navigate their social environments with resilience and resourcefulness.
Discussion
This article rejects the historical gendered and racialised positioning of women as subordinate and deficient and argues for attention to the ways in which they negotiate their agency within the context of gender and sexual violence. By focusing on young women’s own perspectives – and on their own terms – as they express their freedom as university students, the focus on their sexual safety is shifted from problematic risk behaviour to the complexities of gender and sexuality within which power manifests as violence. Furthermore, by privileging the perspectives of young women, this research challenges reductive narratives that portray them solely as passive victims or reckless agents of their own victimisation. Instead, it offers a more nuanced understanding of how female students exercise agency and negotiate complex social environments that both empower and endanger them. They were clear that drinking alcohol did not mean giving up their right to sexual safety. They indicated that women could choose drinking and safety and this was not a trade-off.
The findings from this study show the complex nature of female students’ engagement with alcohol, encompassing both the pursuit of pleasure and the negotiation of risk, particularly concerning their sexual safety. This highlights the duality of alcohol consumption for young women at a South African university. On the one hand, alcohol offers significant pleasures, from stress relief and happiness to social bonding and personal liberation. These positive experiences reflect the way alcohol can enhance social life and personal expression in a university setting. On the other hand, the risks associated with alcohol consumption, particularly related to gender violence, are a constant concern. The young women in this study are acutely aware of the dangers, but navigate these risks through various strategies of self-protection and collective support.
The data reveal the tension between the desire for autonomy and the reality of societal norms that continue to impose restrictions on women’s behaviour. While alcohol can provide temporary freedom, the looming threat of violence and societal judgement remains, forcing women to manage their alcohol consumption and behaviour more cautiously than men. This illustrates the broader issue of how gender inequalities manifest in social spaces, where women must constantly negotiate their freedom against the risk of harm.
Alcohol consumption among female university students is complex, marked by both the pursuit of pleasure and the need for vigilance. The young women in this study assert their right to enjoy alcohol and the freedom it provides, yet they also acknowledge and respond to the risks in gendered ways. Their experiences reflect broader cultural dynamics that shape how young women navigate both the pleasures and dangers of alcohol in a patriarchal society. This study adds to the understanding of how young women negotiate gender, pleasure, and risk in alcohol use, offering insights that could inform policy and educational initiatives aimed at reducing harm while respecting women’s autonomy.
Conclusion
This study has demonstrated that alcohol consumption among female university students is a multifaceted phenomenon that encompasses both pleasure and risk. Female students exercise considerable agency in managing the risks they face, developing strategies to protect their sexual safety while engaging in the social and personal freedoms that university life offers. However, the persistent reality of gendered power imbalances means that these women are operating in a context where they remain vulnerable to sexual violence, even as they seek to enjoy the autonomy and pleasure associated with alcohol consumption.
The findings challenge dominant discourses that frame women as either fully in control or entirely vulnerable, offering a more nuanced understanding of how young women negotiate their autonomy in risky environments. Moreover, it shifts the focus away from placing the burden of responsibility solely on women to prevent violence, emphasising instead the need for structural interventions that address the root causes of gender-based violence and the normalisation of male privilege in university settings. It remains critical to attend to the ways in which gender inequalities facilitate sexual violence against women. The focus has to reject the normative gendered constructions of women as essentially submissive. Constructions of docile femininity devalue feminine sexuality and perpetuate inequalities, which in turn facilitate their violation.
This study contributes to a growing body of literature that calls for a more complex understanding of women’s alcohol use, one that integrates the interplay of pleasure, risk, and agency. It also highlights the importance of addressing the structural inequalities that shape women’s experiences of alcohol consumption and sexual violence at universities. Further research is needed to explore these dynamics across different cultural and institutional contexts, particularly in countries such as South Africa, where gender inequality remains deeply entrenched in social life.
There is a need to move beyond simplistic, prohibitionist policies that fail to address the root causes of gender violence and instead place the burden of prevention on women. The findings suggest that university policies should instead focus on supporting young women’s rights to both safety and pleasure. Efforts to address alcohol-related sexual violence should be gender-sensitive, recognising women’s agency while also acknowledging the structural factors that contribute to their vulnerability. Understanding the risks to female students’ safety in all aspects of student life is critical. It is essential to work towards managing the risks they face rather than questioning their choices. Universities must create environments where female students can engage in social life without fear of judgement or harm, promoting a more equitable and supportive campus culture.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The author reported that they received funding from the National Research Foundation of South Africa, which may be affected by the research reported in the enclosed publication. The author has disclosed those interests fully and has implemented an approved plan for managing any potential conflicts arising from their involvement. The terms of these funding arrangements have been reviewed and approved by the affiliated university in accordance with its policy on objectivity in research.
Author’s contributions
S.S. is the sole author of this research article.
Funding information
This work is based on research supported wholly by the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Number: 113818). The opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in any publication generated by the NRF-supported research are those of the author, and therefore the NRF accepts no liability whatsoever in this regard.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, S.S. upon reasonable request.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.
References
Anitha, S., Jordan, A., Jameson, J. & Davy, Z., 2020, ‘A balancing act: Agency and constraints in university students’ understanding of and responses to sexual violence in the night-time economy’, Violence Against Women 27(11), 2043–2065. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220908325
Basile, K.C., Smith, S.G., Liu, Y., Lowe, A., Gilmore, A.K., Khatiwada, S. et al., 2021, ‘Victim and perpetrator characteristics in alcohol/drug-involved sexual violence victimization in the US’, Drug and Alcohol Dependence 226, 108839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108839
Bhana, D. & Anderson, B., 2013, ‘Desire and constraint in the construction of South African teenage women’s sexualities’, Sexualities 16(5–6), 548–564. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460713487366
Bhana, D. & Pillay, J., 2018, ‘Negotiating femininities on campus: Sexuality, gender and risk in an HIV environment’, Health Education Journal 77(8), 915–926. https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896918784693
Burke, L., Dawson, K., Flack, W.F., O’Higgins, S., McIvor, C. & MacNeela, P., 2023, ‘Alcohol, drug use and experiences of sexual violence victimisation among first-year college students in Ireland’, Journal of Sexual Aggression 31(1), 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2023.2216221
Campbell, C. & Mannell, J., 2016, ‘Conceptualising the agency of highly marginalised women: Intimate partner violence in extreme settings’, Global Public Health 11(1–2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2015.1109694
Choudhry, V., Petterson, K.O., Emmelin, M., Muchunguzi, C. & Agardh, A., 2022, ‘“Relationships on campus are situationships”’: A grounded theory study of sexual relationships at a Ugandan university’, PLoS One 17(7), e0271495. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271495
Commission for Gender Equality, 2018, Annual report 2017/2018, viewed 22 November 2024, from https://cge.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/annual-report-2018.pdf.
De Bruijn, D.M. & De Graaf, I.M., 2016, ‘The role of substance use in same-day intimate partner violence: A review of the literature’, Aggression and Violent Behavior 27, 142–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.02.010
Foley, K., Ward, P.R. & Lunnay, B., 2024, ‘Gendered pleasures, risks and policies: Using a logic of candidacy to explore paradoxical roles of alcohol as a good/poor health behaviour for Australian women early during the pandemic’, International Journal of Drug Policy 130, 104510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2024.104510
Hirsch, J.S. & Khan, S., 2020, Sexual citizens: A landmark study of sex, power, and assault on campus, W. W. Norton & Company, New York.
Ison, J., Wilson, I., Forsdike, K., Theobald, J., Wilson, E., Laslett, A.M. et al., 2024, ‘A scoping review of global literature on alcohol and other drug-facilitated sexual violence’, Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 15248380241297349.
Jewkes, R., Morrell, R., Sikweyiya, Y., Dunkle, K. & Penn-Kekana, L., 2012, ‘Transactional relationships and sex with a woman in prostitution: Prevalence and patterns in a representative sample of South African men’, BMC Public Health 12(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-325
Kefale, B., Yalew, M., Damtie, Y., Arefaynie, M. & Adane, B., 2021, ‘Predictors of sexual violence among female students in higher education institutions in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis’, PLoS One 16(2), e0247386. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247386
Layland, E.K., Calhoun, B.H., Russell, M.A. & Maggs, J.L., 2019, ‘Is alcohol and other substance use reduced when college students attend alcohol-free programs? Evidence from a measurement burst design before and after legal drinking age’, Prevention Science 20(3), 342–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0877-6
Livingstone, J.A., Bay-Cheng, L.Y., Hequembourg, A.L., Testa, M. & Downs, J.S., 2013, ‘Mixed drinks and mixed messages: Adolescent girls’ perspectives on alcohol and sexuality’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 37(1), 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312464202
Makhaye, M.S., Mkhize, S.M. & Sibanyoni, E.K., 2023, ‘Female students as victims of sexual abuse at institutions of higher learning: Insights from Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa’, SN Social Science 3, 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-023-00611-z
Månsson, E. & Bogren, A., 2014, ‘Health, risk, and pleasure: The formation of gendered discourses on women’s alcohol consumption’, Addiction Research & Theory 22(1), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2012.737874
Mellins, C.A., Walsh, K., Sarvet, A.L., Wall, M., Gilbert, L., Santelli, J.S. et al., 2017, ‘Sexual assault incidents among college undergraduates: Prevalence and factors associated with risk’, PLoS One 12(11), e0186471. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186471
Morojele, N.K., London, L., Olorunju, S.A., Matjila, M.J., Davids, A.S. & Rendall-Mkosi, K.M., 2010, ‘Predictors of risk of alcohol-exposed pregnancies among women in an urban and a rural area of South Africa’, Social Science & Medicine 70(4), 534–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.11.020
Mudaly, R., Mabaso, B., Singh-Pillay, A. & Singh, S., 2021, ‘“Why you touching me? This is scary.” Alcohol, fear and miniskirts as risk factors in female students’ understandings of violence on campus’, in D. Bhana, S. Singh & T. Msibi (eds.), Gender, sexuality and violence in South African educational spaces, pp. 245–268, Palgrave MacMillan, London.
Nekgotha, T.K., Nel, K. & Govender, S., 2020, ‘Stress levels and alcohol use amongst beginning students at a peri-urban South African university: A brief report’, Journal of Psychology in Africa 30(3), 208–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69988-8_11
Ngubane, S. & Singh, S., 2021, ‘Male university peer educators on violence: Challenging and complying with hegemonic masculine norms’, in D. Bhana, S. Singh & T. Msibi (eds.), Gender, sexuality and violence in South African educational spaces, pp. 269–291, Palgrave MacMillan, London.
Parkes, J. (ed.), 2015, Gender violence in poverty contexts: The educational challenge, Routledge, Addington.
Phipps, A., 2018, ‘Lad culture’ and sexual violence against students’, in Gender-based violence in university communities, pp. 41–60, Policy Press, Bristol.
Phipps, A., 2020, ‘Reckoning up: Sexual harassment and violence in the neoliberal university’, Gender and Education 32(2), 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2018.1482413
Ramsoomar, L., Gibbs, A., Chirwa, E.D., Dunkle, K. & Jewkes, R., 2021, ‘Pooled analysis of the association between alcohol use and violence against women: Evidence from four violence prevention studies in Africa’, BMJ Open 11(7), e049282. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049282
Rolfe, A., Orford, J. & Dalton, S., 2009, ‘Women, alcohol and femininity: A discourse analysis of women heavy drinkers’ accounts’, Journal of Health Psychology 14(3), 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105308100217
Senn, C.Y., Eliasziw, M., Hobden, K.L., Barata, P.C., Radtke, H.L., Thurston, W.E. et al., 2021, ‘Testing a model of how a sexual assault resistance education program for women reduces sexual assaults’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 45(1), 20–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684320962561
Shefer, T. & Munt, S.R., 2019, ‘A feminist politics of shame: Shame and its contested possibilities’, Feminism & Psychology 29(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353519839755
Shefer, T., Hearn, J., Ratele, K. & Boonzaier, F. (eds.), 2018, Engaging youth in activism, research and pedagogical praxis: Transnational and intersectional perspectives on gender, sex, and race, Routledge, New York.
Taft, A., Kuntsche, S., Laslett, A.M. & Wilson, I.M., 2019, ‘Pathways to responding and preventing alcohol-related violence against women: Why a gendered approach matters’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 43(6), 516–518. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12943
Vythilingum, B., Stein, D.J., Roos, A., Faure, S.C. & Geerts, L., 2012, ‘Risk factors for substance use in pregnant women in South Africa’, South African Medical Journal 102(11), 851–854. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.5865
Weinzimmer, J. & Twill, S., 2015, ‘Understanding “the panty shanty”: Off-campus house signs as cultural texts on gender and sexuality’, Journal of Gender Studies 25(4), 398–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2014.1000284
Wilsnack, S.C., Wilsnack, R.W. & Kantor, L.W., 2014, ‘Focus on: Women and the costs of alcohol use’, Alcohol Research: Current Reviews 35(2), 219.
Wilson, I., Forsdike, K., Theobald, J., Wilson, E., Laslett, A.M. & Hooker, L., 2024, ‘A scoping review of global literature on alcohol and other drug-facilitated sexual violence’, Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 25, 15248380241297349. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241297349
Wilson, L.C., Farley, A. & Horton, S.F., 2022, ‘The impact of victim blaming and locus of control on mental health outcomes among female sexual assault survivors’, Violence Against Women 28(15–16), 3785–3800. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012221088304
World Health Organization (WHO), 2018, Global status report on alcohol and health, viewed n.d., from https://www.who.int.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2021, WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women, viewed 12 November 2024, from https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications.
|
Hide
Show all
Email this article (Login required)
