When practitioners of veterinary medicine enter academia as faculty or clinical instructors, they are asked to perform research, provide service and outreach, and educate students, yet the teaching component is a struggle for many. It has been posited that academic clinicians develop a teaching style similar to those they observed while in school but this has not been confirmed with empirical evidence.
The aim of this research was to determine how veterinary instructors obtained pedagogical knowledge prior to their faculty appointment.
The sample consisted of veterinary faculty at a college of veterinary medicine from the southeastern United States. The land-grant university that the veterinary school is associated with is one of only a few schools to earn both research and community engagement rankings from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Online surveys were administered to a stratified sample of veterinary faculty and instructors. A mixed-methods approach was utilised to collect and analyse both close-ended and open-ended data. A coding process provided labels for emerging themes, concepts and examples and each research question was answered with descriptive detail.
Descriptive results showed that most instructors (93%) did not receive formal teacher training but derived their pedagogical knowledge from role models prior to teaching. Many faculty members (70%) attended university-sponsored workshops offered by their institutions to build upon and improve their teaching skills.
Overarching themes reflected observational learning
Veterinarians are trained to be clinicians and they are required to be skilled in medical diagnostic procedures, client communication skills and surgical techniques (AVMA
How do veterinary faculty obtain knowledge regarding effective instructional strategies?
Who do veterinary faculty source their knowledge from regarding instructional strategies?
What types of instructional strategies do veterinary faculty obtain from their knowledge sources?
The information obtained from this study should lead to suggestions and improvements for current veterinary teacher development strategies.
The lack of formal pedagogical education for medical faculty is not a problem unique to the veterinary field (Bing-You et al.
Teachers in other disciplines piece together the knowledge needed to become good teachers in similar ways. Research has shown that nurse educators learn on the job and use mentors in discovering how to effectively teach (Gardner
A recurring theme found by researchers is the need for improving teaching practices in higher education through faculty development programmes, but how these programmes should be constructed is a matter of debate (Devlin & Samarawickrema
Sunal et al. (
Clinical teachers share traits with effective teachers (Smith & Lane
At the time of submission of this article, studies on veterinary educators’ formal teacher education prior to their faculty appointment or how veterinary faculty members pieced together the knowledge needed to become teachers were not found. Based on the literature review, it was hypothesised that most veterinary faculty had limited to no formal training in teaching practices prior to their academic appointments. The information obtained will fill the knowledge gap regarding how veterinary faculty members obtain pedagogical knowledge and should lead to suggestions and improvements for current veterinary teacher development strategies.
The educational psychology theory that the project can be rooted in is situated cognition (Brown, Collins & Duguid
This type of learning can often be described as unintentional. As it is hypothesised that most veterinary faculty will not have formal educational backgrounds, they are likely to use their experiences with previous educators and combine them with current mentoring from senior faculty to be successful. To this point, cognitive apprenticeship as described by Collins et al. (
A mixed-methods approach was used to collect and analyse both close- and open-ended data. Qualitative methods that have been successfully employed in the past were used to establish the credibility of this study (Creswell
All participants were informed of the scope of the study and individual unsigned consent was obtained. There were no consequences for those who declined to participate. Instructors who were recruited in person received an unsigned consent document for personal records, which included a statement indicating informed consent and a brief description of the study’s purpose and procedures. Instructors who were recruited by email received another version of the consent document which provided the same information as mentioned above.
The
Research questions mapped to items on survey instrument, Pedagogical Knowledge Acquisition Survey–Faculty.
Research questions | Corresponding items (PKAS-F) |
---|---|
How do veterinary faculty obtain knowledge regarding effective instructional strategies? | 9, 10, 13, 14 |
Who do veterinary faculty source their knowledge from regarding instructional strategies? | 24, 26, 27, 28 |
What types of instructional strategies do veterinary faculty obtain from their knowledge sources? | 11, 12, 25 |
Do veterinary instructors have a continued desire to, or believe they can, learn more and improve their teaching instruction and pedagogical knowledge? | 3, 17, 31, 32 |
Demographic information | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 |
PKAS-F, Pedagogical Knowledge Acquisition Survey–Faculty.
Participants were recruited for the study in the fall of 2016 based on publicly shared online information that indicated the individual’s position as an instructional faculty member at a college of veterinary medicine in the southeastern United States. Email correspondence was used to recruit and secure consent from the participants. The recruitment email served as a disclosure of information about the study to potential participants, and was structured in a way that allowed for unsigned consent.
The sample consisted of veterinary faculty (
Codes emerged from inductive and deductive thematic analyses. Memorable quotes were noted and summaries were constructed including the main themes, points and insights expressed by each participant. Next, a coding process provided labels for emerging themes, concepts and examples (
Examples of coding and condensation, question 26.
Examples of full quotations | Examples of condensation | Examples of coding |
---|---|---|
As above….faculty members when I was a student. | Faculty members when a student | Role models |
I cannot say a single person but my style is more of an amalgamation of six to eight people whom I feel are excellent in the classroom. | Multiple, excellent classroom teachers | Role models |
The desire to help our students succeed as veterinarians in whatever career route they chose, to impact them in such a way as to influence their lives in a positive way. | Desire to help students succeed | Students |
My residency mentor. | Mentor | Role model |
No one person has been most influential – really numerous mentors, each with various strengths. | Numerous mentors | Role models |
A crusty old ruminant physiology professor named A.D. A.D. taught acid-base physiology, as well as general physiology. His Socratic style of teaching through questioning was a huge influence on me. He did not just give you the answer – you had to work for it. | Physiology professor and previous teacher | Role model |
A biology teacher in high school. | Previous high school teacher | Role model |
My father (a high school biology teacher), a high school math teacher who helped conquer my fear of that subject and a college professor who got me interested in my research field. | High school teacher/father | Role model |
My mom. She was an elementary teacher while I was growing up. She went above and beyond to inspire and educate her students. Seeing the difference she made in 1000s of kids helped push to be an educator. | Elementary teacher who inspired and educated students | Role model |
My first boss in general practice. | Veterinarian, boss in private practice | Role model |
Numerous previous instructors. | Previous instructors | Role model |
Quantitative analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 24. The analysis investigated correlations between the instructors’ current position (question 3) with the instructors’ desire to learn more about teaching and instructional strategies (question 7). The latter question used a Likert scale with six responses from 1 (not at all) to 6 (most definitely). In G*Power Version 3.1.9.2, the statistical test was defined as Correlation: Point Biserial model, and the type of power analysis was defined as post hoc: Compute power – given alpha, sample size and effect size.
This project received Institutional Review Board approval with protocol ID: IRB-17–416 from the Mississippi State University.
The results of this study supported the assumption that many instructors at a single intuition arrived at their position from varied backgrounds (
Reported instructor educational backgrounds.
Participant | Educational background |
---|---|
1 | Mississippi State University |
2 | University of Georgia, DVM |
3 | Cook College, Rutgers University, BS (Animal Sciences) |
4 | Dalhousie University, BS |
5 | Mississippi State University, BS, DVM, DABVP |
6 | The State University of New York at Buffalo, BA |
7 | University of Dublin-Trinity College |
8 | Washington State University, DVM |
9 | Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, DVM |
10 | Louisiana Tech, BS |
11 | National University of Mexico, DVM, MS |
12 | Shanxi Agricultural University, BS |
13 | Washington State University, DVM and Internship |
14 | University of Virginia, Master of Arts in English Language and Literature Mary Baldwin College, Post-Graduate Teaching Certification Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Vet Med, DVM |
15 | Louisiana State University Medical School in Shreveport, PhD |
16 | Auburn University, BS, MS |
17 | Ontario Veterinary College, DVM, Internship, and Residency |
18 | Mississippi State University, BS, DVM, MS, ACVPM (Diplomate) |
19 | The Ohio State University |
20 | Mississippi State University, BS, MS, DVM |
21 | Mississippi State University, DVM |
DVM, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine; MS, Master of Science; BS, Bachelor of Science; PhD, Doctor of Philosophy; DABVP, Diplomate of the American Board of Veterinary Practitioners; BA, Bachelor of Arts; DACVA, Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists; DACVIM, Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine; ACVPM, American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine; MPH, Masters of Public Health.
Based on the survey results, it was found that most instructors (
‘The Assessment and Evaluation course was my favorite. I was made more aware of how to present essential material to the students in a clear and direct way, and how to compose a test that determines the effectiveness of instruction.’ (Participant M, Associate Professor, Southeastern United States).
In an interesting contrast, 21 faculty members reported learning about teaching prior to their faculty appointments by emulating a past teacher they admired as students.
The majority of faculty who responded to question 26 (
Dr C illustrated,
‘Several were role models for enthusiasm. …While I am not sure I remembered more of what they taught, they modeled passion for learning, for teaching, and for the profession. Several were role models for clarity, brevity and organization … even though they provided less “content”, what they taught me was remembered (“less is more”).’ (Professor, Southeastern United States)
Dr U explained,
‘That is how I have developed my teaching styles. I looked at my professors during veterinary school, and the faculty members, and tried to use techniques that were effective in my teaching style.’ (Assistant Professor, Southeastern United States)
Responses to questions 11, 12 and 25 were best summarised and conceptually coded across all participants (
Survey participants considered utilising student feedback as a way to gauge the effectiveness of their instructional strategies and if they should make changes to the types of strategies currently in use. Furthermore, they use student feedback as a way to increase teacher enthusiasm.
‘Student feedback. I consistently alter clinical teaching based on student feedback. Students tell you (in one way or another) how they learn best and where the gaps are in their education. I try to alter my delivery and fill these gaps – especially with 3rd and 4th year students.’ (Participant R, Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘Teaching style has been an evolution based on student performance and feedback.’ (Participant Q, Professor, Southeastern United States)
Survey participants saw the need to connect with students on a personal level and make sure that the students feel supported and cared for.
‘Connecting with the students and seeing them enthusiastic, appreciative, and understand the material (without focusing only on the test).’ (Participant B, Associate Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘1. Make learning fun (use of anecdotes from previous life experiences to ‘make a point’). 2. Give students a role in their education (ask for feedback or questions before, during and after class). Make certain that they’re ‘getting it’ (assume nothing). Find out where they are beginning before moving on.’ (Participant D, Professor, Southeastern United States)
Survey participants saw the need to lead students on a journey of synthesising memorised material, facts and lectures into the greater clinical picture of caring for patients, performing surgery and communicating to other professionals.
‘As a student, I sat through years of lectures wondering about the subject relevance to vet practice. But when I started clinical rotations, I began to see the relevance of that didactic material, which lead to asking more why questions. “Why” questions lead to “how” (Why do we do that? How does that work?). I have always asked students to explain why they wish to do specific things on rotation and have tried to incorporate clinical examples in the didactic courses to provide a frame of reference. I also try to use underlying principles to support how and why we do things the way we do.’ (Participant L, Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘1. I have tried to incorporate clinical scenarios in lectures and rounds, as well as give examples from cases when discussing things one on one.’ (Participant U, Assistant Professor, Southeastern United States)
Survey participants understood that they did not enter their faculty appointment with all the pedagogical knowledge needed to effectively teach. They must therefore learn new concepts.
‘understanding by design, writing clear, understandable instructional objectives and assessment accommodations for student diversity.’ (Participant M, Associate Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘It uncovered the science behind teaching and educational psychology for which I was previously ignorant. It’s nice to learn evidence-based practices for teaching similar to what we learn for veterinary medicine.’ (Participant X, Assistant Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘Use of failure when taking pedagogical risks – try things even if they don’t work; pre-post concept testing; that students perceive themselves as victims of their monster mentors – attempting to show a human side in daily actions may reduce that dynamic.’ (Participant L, Professor, Southeastern United States)
Survey participants conveyed that not only should veterinary educators be passionate about animals, displaying passion and enthusiasm for veterinary medicine as a discipline, but also the content being taught is important for student learning.
‘1. Vital for teacher to demonstrate enthusiasm/passion for discipline; 2. Basic principles are important, but teacher must stress clinical relevance early and often; 3. Students are more willing to learn from a teacher they like or respect than from one they don’t. …While I am not sure I remembered more of what they taught, they modeled passion for learning, for teaching, and for the profession.’ (Participant C, Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘I learned a lot about teaching from my mentors. However, I think enthusiasm for teaching comes from within. This enthusiasm, or lack thereof, is absolutely noticed by the students.’ (Participant T, Associate Professor, Southeastern United States)
Survey participants realised that this includes learning how to write well-crafted exam questions that test synthesised knowledge and not just memorisation of facts. This also involves being consistent from student to student when subjective grading is involved.
‘I recognized mistakes I was making with writing test questions. I am more familiar with concepts and strategies that allow test questions to more accurately assess an examinee’s knowledge and understanding. Test questions that require conceptual understanding rather than just memorization, fair test questions with only one correct answer, fair questions without misleading distractors.’ (Participant K, Clinical Instructor, Southeastern United States)
‘Listen to student concerns, respond in a timely manner, be consistent with grading.’ (Participant G, Professor, Southeastern United States)
Survey participants stated that they must be lifelong learners and learn new, innovative ways to educate veterinary students, even if that means trying new techniques and failing. The participants also suggested that different strategies may be more effective for one learner versus another.
‘Use of failure when taking pedagogical risks - try things even if they don’t work; pre-post concept testing.’ (Participant L, Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘Strategy – in clinical teaching, its all about being flexible. One strategy may not work for all. AND we have to make the learning environment comfortable by keeping the student relaxed. I try to ascertain if an individual is “getting it” – if not, I try another way to explain (visuals, models, etc.).’ (Participant R, Professor, Southeastern United States)
Survey participants conveyed that research and current literature can inform and enhance the learning environment. Therefore, veterinary educators should see the need to read up on the current literature in clinical veterinary medicine and apply this to their instructional strategies.
‘Given a limited amount of preparation time I spend more of it trying to find interesting and exciting examples that illustrate the potential clinical importance of the concept or illustrating new therapies that are just coming to human medicine and will likely make their way to veterinary medicine soon.’ (Participant A, Professor, Southeastern United States)
‘I try to incorporate stories (e.g. cases or something I’ve read in a research article) that are both interesting, sometimes bizarre, or just fun so they can remember an association; I try to invest in the class hoping they invest in it too.’ (Participant B, Associate Professor, Southeastern United States)
Results from a post hoc quantitative analysis of veterinary educators (
Dr S stated:
‘I think the most successful teachers have a passion for teaching that really cannot be taught. Teaching can certainly be enhanced through instruction and when these two are merged a very proficient instructor develops.’ (Associate Professor, Southeastern United States)
Dr A clarified:
‘We have a faculty member in my department who does careful self-evaluations each year of his teaching and uses them to improve. His evaluation scores from students have consistently improved over time. However, the teachers who are typically rated as the very best (the ones who win awards, etc.) are often gifted in ways or have a personality that would be difficult for someone without those gifts or personality to emulate.’ (Professor, Southeastern United States)
The results of this study support the proposition that most veterinary instructors do not receive formal teacher education prior to their teaching appointments. Three overarching themes emerged from the analysis across all survey item responses and sample strata. The first two represent the emotional and personal component of educators.
Rapport, respect, caring for, or understanding students.
Passion or enthusiasm for subject.
When listing how a role model influenced his teaching strategies, one participant noted:
‘1. Vital for teacher to demonstrate enthusiasm/passion for discipline; 2. Basic principles are important, but teacher must stress clinical relevance early and often; 3. Students are more willing to learn from a teacher they like or respect than from one they don’t.’ (Participant C, Professor, Southeastern United States)
These non-cognitive characteristics arose repeatedly in response to open-ended questions and described the need for veterinary educators to ensure that their students feel cared for and respected. The characteristics also described the perceived need to display some sort of positive emotional connection that educators have with the material they are teaching. These two overarching themes validate previous research findings regarding the importance of interpersonal skills for effective teaching (Bing-You et al.
Observation of models plays an important role in teacher development.
One participant detailed this well:
‘I try to emulate parts of the teaching style from many of my professors. I remember what inspired me to succeed while in vet school and try to emulate those teaching strategies.’ (Participant K, Clinical Instructor, Southeastern United States)
This theme was clearly articulated by a majority of participants and emphasises how veterinary faculty utilise observational learning within social cognitive theory (Bandura
The findings of this study prompt more questions. Limitations of this survey included a lack of examination of the quality of instructor knowledge. An assessment measuring gaps in instructors’ pedagogical knowledge and whether veterinary educators feel fully equipped to teach would provide valuable information. Important parameters of effective teaching, the engagement in the scholarship of teaching and learning and other scholarly contributions were not surveyed, which could have added further depth to a study of this nature. A more detailed survey and analysis of common themes among veterinary educators on what instructional strategies are currently used and the effectiveness of these strategies could highlight deficits in pedagogical knowledge and inform needed innovations in veterinary medical education. When this is known, teacher development programmes could be tailored to meet these pedagogical gaps.
Most veterinary educators in this study did not receive formal teacher training, and instead derived their pedagogical knowledge from role models and past teachers prior to their faculty appointment. Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship theories appear to play an important role in veterinary instructor development. Overarching themes reflected observational learning while in the natural educational environment when faculty were themselves students. A general emphasis on non-cognitive skills development, particularly regarding interpersonal skills, emerged as an important proficiency among veterinary educators.
The author would like to thank Nicole Leach and Audri Brown for their insight and collaboration. The views expressed in this article are the author’s own and do not represent the views of any institution.
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.