Original Research

Quest for economic sustainability in theological training: A case study from Zimbabwe

Kimion Tagwirei

Received: 18 June 2025; Accepted: 09 Oct. 2025; Published: 24 Nov. 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Theological training institutions play a pivotal role in equipping human resources for the holistic mission of the Church. The training they provide is highly recommended to meet rising demands for, and to ensure capacity building, integrity and competency for the rapidly growing Church in Africa, and to reverse the mission of the Church to Europe and countries in the West amid escalating secularisation. While Africans are now benefactors of the gospel beyond their motherlands, the challenge is that the majority of African theological institutions are still depending on European and Western support to cover their operating costs. Foreign generosity must be appreciated because it yields products that eventually serve the Church and society across the world. However, failure to indigenise sustainability affects institutional economics, autonomy and mission. Through a qualitative case study of the Theological College of Southern Africa (TCSA), purposively sampled in-depth interviews, participant observations and a literature review under theonomic reciprocity theory, this study questions how institutional economic sustainability can be achieved and explores strategies that are feasible for theological colleges in volatile contexts. Finding TCSA’s sources of revenue to be unsustainable, it concludes that contextually feasible, innovative and entrepreneurial strategies can build up sustainability.

Contribution: This study offers strategies to sustain theological training institutions in volatile contexts.

Keywords: theology; mission; context; economics; dependency; sustainability.

Introduction

Theological training institutions are integral providers of human capital for the Church and society across the global village. Considering that the Church has grown massively in Zimbabwe, and the fact that Zimbabweans are engaging in missionary work beyond their motherland, there is a greater need for capacity building, integrity and competency than ever before (Tagwirei 2024a). Like most African nations, and for Zimbabwe in particular, there is a dire need for well-trained gospel workers who can advance transformative integral mission; Zimbabwe is battling overwhelming political, environmental and socio-economic crises (Hupile & Siambombe 2024; Musvanhiri 2025; Tagwirei 2024b). The education provided by theological institutions must be good enough to produce theologically sound Christian workers who can contextualise the gospel and transform the Church and society (Tarus 2021). Additionally, Africans are now considered benefactors of the gospel beyond their motherlands (Granberg-Michaelson 2015; Kalu 2008; Musoni 2025). Paradoxically, the majority of theological institutions in Zimbabwe and the rest of Africa still depend on European and Western support to meet their operating costs. Without economic sustainability, training institutions cannot sustain excellence and transformation. While foreign support must be appreciated, because it backs up the grounding of a workforce to serve the Church and society, the failure to achieve self-sustainability problematises institutional economics, autonomy and mission. This submission starts with an overview of the theonomic reciprocity theory, then historicises the Theological College of Southern Africa (TCSA), reviews its sources of revenue and explores strategies that can enhance institutional sustainability. Subsequently, it overviews implications of the study on higher education and ends with the conclusion.

Literature review: Institutions of education and economic sustainability

The economic sustainability of institutions of education is of great interest to scholars across the world. While institutions have discussed and implemented a variety of efforts to achieve institutional sustainability since time immemorial, Rasli et al. (2024) assert that a number of educational institutions were suddenly awakened to the significance of economic sustainability during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, when traditional sources of income were massively disrupted. Rasli et al. (2024) argue that, while the COVID-19 pandemic was tragic and disturbing, it also provided ‘a unique opportunity for educators and policymakers to reconsider education systems and rethink what is essential, necessary, and desirable for future generations’. Using the expert opinion research method and engaging with professors who hold key positions at universities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, India and Bangladesh, Rasli et al. (2024) conclude that educational institutions require education reform, digital transformation, resilience and change management to achieve economic sustainability in disruptive contexts.

Cole (2023) highlights several macro issues related to African higher education, such as inadequate funding, governance challenges and a lack of access to digital infrastructure, which were compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic. For Cole (2023), the Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA) 2016–2025 initiative by the African Union could capacitate higher education and promote development-oriented research, community outreach and teaching. It is remarkable that the CESA strategy recognises the importance of gender sensitivity, academic freedom, institutional autonomy and public accountability to create sustainable institutions. Interestingly:

[T]o achieve these goals, stakeholders must create a shared vision and a constituency for transforming and investing in higher education, harness disparate efforts and initiatives, and spur innovation in African higher education. (Cole 2023:74)

Drawing on the study by Cole (2023), it is clear that most African institutions of higher education are problematised by inadequate human, financial and material resources and suffer from donor dependency syndrome. According to Cole (2023:74), the aforementioned factors lead to ‘weak governance, and declining academic standards to put their tertiary education on a sound financial and institutional footing for long-term development’. Murtadlo et al. (2025) add that African institutions of education may continue struggling with resource limitations, gaps between policy and practice and political instability unless and until they adopt capacity-building initiatives, policy development and peer-to-peer support programmes. Similarly, because of institutional economic instability, Mohamedbhai (2011:6) suggests that ‘Sensitization, capacity building, and funding are, thus, the main issues that need to be addressed in promoting quality assurance’. If African higher education institutions are to realise economic sustainability, Mohamedbhai (2011:6) believes that ‘they need to plan and innovate. Their policies require commitment and collaboration of all the stakeholders’.

In Zimbabwe, the situation has been particularly challenging for educational institutions, because all sectors of the nation have been, for decades, suffering under political and economic crises. Pikovskaia (2025) reports that Zimbabwe has been hard hit by a series of economic and political crises since 1990s, which persist up to the present. According to Amnesty International (2024), ‘Zimbabwe’s education crisis is a multifaceted issue intertwined with debt distress, financial deficits, and the exodus of teachers’. Therefore, all institutions of learning bear the brunt of national economic instability. This study draws inspiration from a view that ‘sustainable solutions that ensure adequate resources for schools and fair wages for teachers creating an optimal learning environment for students are imperative’ (Amnesty International 2024:n.p.). Furthermore, ‘only through concerted efforts and strategic investments can Zimbabwe pave the way for a brighter future where every child can access quality education’. Thus, this study explores the path for theological institutions to be sustainable enough to train and produce an effective workforce that can serve the Church and society and foster inclusive transformation. It is progressive to derive further lessons from Amnesty International (2024:n.p.), which states that ‘the path forward requires bold investments, responsible debt management, and a genuine commitment to providing every child with the opportunity to learn and succeed’. Before narrowing our focus on a theological case study in Zimbabwe, the following section explains the research design and methodology of this study.

Research methods and design

This article is a qualitative case study of the TCSA. A qualitative design was considered because it accommodates a natural and representative approach with a contextual focus (Marshall 2006). A case study seeks to investigate people’s interpretations of their lived experiences, the construction of their worlds and the meanings of their encounters (Merriam & Tisdell 2016:6). Furthermore, I considered a case study because it begets contextually substantial data (Yin 2016:3). I also took into account that a case study explores the depth and breadth of issues under study and captures them in detail (Barbour 2014; Flick 2018). This article is contextually delimited to the TCSA in Zimbabwe because the author serves there as an associate lecturer and its owner as a pastor – thus strategically positioned to engage with all stakeholders of the college effectively. To avoid ethical bias, the author obtained ethics approval from the North-West University Senate Committee for Research Ethics (NWU-SCRE, No. NWU-01338-25-A6), obtained informed oral consent and maintained accuracy and fairness throughout the research process. Although he is an associate of the college and a pastor of the church, the author identified himself as a researcher who was carrying out an academic study and got interviewees’ consent before all engagements. Because the research explored strategies to sustain the college, the author had every reason to avoid fabrication, distortion or exaggeration of data. The author handled all data accurately and fairly in pursuit of progressive results that can be useful to the college and other institutions of education. For the sake of confidentiality, participants who wished to remain anonymous are not named. This clarification encouraged participants to provide information from an informed position and in good faith without deceiving the researcher.

The TCSA is owned by the Assemblies of God (AOG) Church, was founded in South Africa in 1966, moved to Zimbabwe in 2004 and is one of the oldest theological colleges in Zimbabwe. The college provides online training for students of different denominations, locations and backgrounds in and outside Zimbabwe, yet is still economically unstable. Thus, the college can be considered as one of the best examples of theological institutions in need of an economic review. A population of 15 participants – one AOG national executive representative, two members of the TCSA Board, four AOG pastors, two faculty representatives and six TCSA students – was purposively sampled and engaged in in-depth interviews. Furthermore, participant observations and a literature review, in light of the theory of theonomic reciprocity, were conducted. As observed by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the purposive sampling used for this study optimised the selection of a few people who have a great deal of experience and knowledge about the college and matter under study. The interviewees provided relevant and informative data that facilitated the accomplishment of this study.

Descriptive and interpretive data analysis was employed to describe, categorise, interpret and present meanings of interviewees’ views. The author carefully and thoroughly read and translated vernacular expressions into English. Subsequently, the author interpreted, categorised and presented data from interviewees into several themes and sections. The description, interpretation and analysis of results informed the researcher’s conclusions. Findings of this study are contextualised in Zimbabwe in view of the following theoretical framework.

Theoretical framework: Theonomic reciprocity

Theonomic reciprocity is derived from two terms – theonomy and reciprocity. The term theonomy generally refers to the government of God (Merriam-Webster.com n.d.). Reciprocity means collaboration (Beltran et al. 2023). In a theological sense, according to Chismar and Rausch (1984), theonomy means more than the government of God. Chismar and Rausch (1984) explain that theonomy is a theocratic system representing the moral authority, guidance and blessing of God on human affairs. For Chismar and Rausch, submission to, observing the law and applying the word of God beget his blessings, which enable human accomplishments.

The theory of theonomic reciprocity was initially proposed in 1986 by the German theologian Bohren in his work on preaching, titled Predigtlehre (1986). Theonomic reciprocity proposes the utilisation, management and investment of God-given resources to achieve sustainability. Bohren (1986) developed the theory of theonomic reciprocity in view of the relationship between the Spirit and method. Van Ruler (1969) describes this relationship as divine action that makes human action possible. While Van Helden (2016) applies theonomic reciprocity on a different subject – Church growth – she conceptualises theonomic reciprocity as submission to God and utilising his provisions strategically to achieve sustainability. Views of Van Helden (2016) suggest that the theory of reciprocity is versatile and viable. With that in mind, this article refers to Bohren (1986), according to whom it is crucial to complement spiritual inspiration and God’s direction and empowerment with human strategies. Butzke (2007) explicates that Bohren’s (1986) suggestions can be applied for utilising, investing and managing God’s provisions to achieve individual and collective economic sustainability. According to Butzke, economic sustainability requires strategic attention, just as pneumatology must be married to anthropology with relevant techniques and methods.

Considering that theological colleges in Zimbabwe are highly spiritualised, their economies are, correspondingly, faith-based. The majority of theological colleges operate under the belief that God will sustain them, mainly through donations and student fees. In the case of the TCSA, where some students pay fees, and donors do give certain gifts, applying theonomic reciprocity could give rise to strategic investments and the management of given resources for sustainability. The theory of theonomic reciprocity is apt for this study because it discourages an irresponsible dependency syndrome, merges spirituality with strategy and advocates for responsible use, investment and management – which begets sustainability. Therefore, this study applied theonomic reciprocity to troubleshoot the economic sustainability of theological training institutions in Zimbabwe through a case study of the TCSA.

Historicising the theological college of Southern Africa

The TCSA is a church-owned college that trains students for Christian leadership and ministry to serve the Church, state and society. It was founded in 1966 in South Africa (Bond 1994) and was set up by the AOG Church as a correspondence school to train a workforce for ministry:

[I]t was not accredited and served only to provide pastors, potential pastors, and leaders with at least some Bible training. Contrary to its name it was more a very basic Bible school than a theological college. (Bosch 2014:17)

Bosch (2014) narrates further that, during the early years, the AOG in Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) and the AOG in South Africa were one organisation with a single leadership structure:

Around 1983 the AOG in Zimbabwe seceded from the South African AOG and became an autonomous denomination. During 1970, the AOG entered into an agreement with the leaders of the fledgling charismatic movement in South Africa to establish a full-time residential Bible school. This resulted in TCSA being relocated to Nigel, near Johannesburg in South Africa, and in January 1971 it opened its doors to 18 students on the leased estate of a defunct gold mine property. (Bosch 2014:17)

Bosch adds that TCSA operated with one full-time faculty member, Lawrence Wilson, who was a pastor seconded from the AOG, and three leaders drawn from the charismatic movement. Wilson served as both lecturer and principal of the school and was assisted by a number of part-time lecturers. Eventually, the school ‘moved … from the mine property into the AOG church in Nigel while the Charismatics moved to a neighbouring city’:

When Wilson later moved to a church in Alberton (closer to Johannesburg), the School moved with him. In the ensuing years Wilson left the AOG to lead an independent church. After Wilson’s exit TCSA moved several times to different locations in South Africa under various leaders. (Bosch 2014:18)

In 2000, the AOG recruited Dr Thomas Resane to revive the school again:

It was moved from Pietermaritzburg where it had languished for several years to the Youth for Christ property in Bedfordview to the east of Johannesburg. Here they rented three offices/classrooms and library space. Dr Resane developed a new curriculum and gained provisional accreditation with SAQA – the South African Qualifications Authority who oversees all accredited colleges and universities in South Africa. Also in 2000 the name of the school was changed to Theological College of Southern Africa (TCSA). Behind the name change was a desire to reach out to all of southern Africa and not only to South Africa. (Bosch 2014:19)

However, after just 3 years, and for unknown reasons, the AOG in South Africa decided to summarily close TCSA permanently. All college assets, including the library, were distributed to other Bible schools in South Africa. Bosch reports that Pastor Mathamsanqa Dube, a senior pastor of the AOG in Zimbabwe who had served on the board of the TCSA during its final years in South Africa, secured an agreement with AOG South Africa to gift the TCSA to Zimbabwe because there was need for a school in Zimbabwe and South Africa had no further use for it. The TCSA was moved to Zimbabwe in 2004 and headquartered in Bulawayo. According to Bosch, all Zimbabwe received was ‘a name, a crest logo, a few disjointed study guides and about 200 books of dubious theological value’:

Between 2004 and 2011 the Zimbabwean reincarnation of TCSA struggled for survival in Zimbabwe. They were using the remnants of the curriculum they had received from South Africa, supplemented by purchased American material. The materials received from South Africa amounted to nothing more than a handful of study guides. The American material was largely unsuited to the very specific situation in Africa because of cultural and theological differences. In addition, the booklets were expensive and contained stringent copyright rules making them unaffordable to the average Zimbabwean student … (Bosch 2014:21)

In spite of these challenges and its chequered history, over almost five decades of its existence, the TCSA had successfully trained countless pastors, teachers, evangelists and other church leaders. Many of its graduates have gone on to earn higher degrees at seminaries and universities all over the world. Alumni from this institute are in leadership positions in many different denominations and groups on every continent. (Bosch 2014:18)

Later, in 2011, Dr Anton Bosch, who is a South African, an American missionary and Bible scholar, was co-opted to assist in reviving the TCSA in Zimbabwe:

I was commissioned, and given carte blanche to design a curriculum and method of delivery as well as to author, or oversee the authoring, of all the materials required for the new school. (Bosch 2014:18)

Since then, the TCSA has operated from Bulawayo, from a single rented office, under the leadership of a part-time principal.

The college offers certificate to diploma theology courses, mainly online, and is in the process of affiliating with the Zimbabwe Open University to offer a degree in theological studies. In attempts to intensify its impact, the TCSA now offers short crash certificates in theology that have been tailor-made for pastors, elders and other church leaders who cannot enrol for full-time academic studies for various reasons such as a lack of prior qualifications, working conditions and time factors. To complement its online offerings, the TCSA facilitates onsite seminars about various contextually relevant pastoral, leadership and theological topics; these seminars are presented at an AOG church hall in Bulawayo city centre, which the TCSA rents.

Similar to the way the college operated in South Africa, the TCSA still operates in Zimbabwe without adequate human, financial and material resources. Courtesy of the generous financial support of the Sun Valley Community Church (SVCC) in the United States, which had been initiated by Dr Bosch and is now facilitated by the church’s incumbent pastor, the TCSA operates with one full-time academic dean, who also serves as a lecturer, and a secretary, who also serves as an office manager. The two staff are assisted by Dr Bosch, who serves online from the United States, as a volunteer academic advisor and lecturer, together with a local associate lecturer and a part-time administrator who is a full-time pastor and chairperson of the AOG Matabeleland North region. The faculty is also assisted by a few adjunct assistant lecturers drawn from the AOG and other local churches.

In the absence of a diversified and sustainable financial base, the TCSA has been struggling to sustain its operations and adjunct faculty and optimise its training mission. With the present economy, the college struggles to build or rent adequate offices and related infrastructure. Recently, its leadership attempted to affiliate with the Zimbabwe Open University to improve its service to university standards. The affiliation requirements of the university included offices, a library and lecture halls to accommodate administrative and teaching staff and students. The TCSA could not meet the requirements because of its economic incapacity. Thus, troubleshooting institutional economics matters. To address the college’s financial situation from an informed position, the following subsection reviews its sources of income.

Reviewing the college’s sources of revenue

When Dr Bosch started assisting the TCSA in 2011, he mobilised his church (SVCC) to fund full-time faculty and college programmes such as seminars. When the college facilitates a seminar, the SVCC covers the bulk of the incurred expenses and the college charges attendees subsidised fees to cover certain logistical expenses. Dr Bosch retired from full-time pastoral ministry in 2024 and was succeeded by Pastor Fourie, who continues to facilitate SVCC support for the TCSA. Meanwhile, the college charges highly subsidised tuition fees and gives exemptions for certain needy students, especially those of the AOG Church. The fees are low, and the money is used to pay part of the college’s operating expenses, such as its internet connection, telephone bills and adjunct faculty payments. In appreciation of the role of the college and its benefits for the church, the AOG Matabeleland North region has covered the college’s office rent since its inception. Overall, the TCSA relies on SVCC, some AOG Church donations and student fees, while the majority of local stakeholders believe and proclaim that God will keep donors helping the college. Yet, spiritualising the economic sustainability of the college negates theonomic reciprocity. Therefore, it is imperative to analyse the viability of the college, awaken all stakeholders and motivate them to reciprocate donated resources with innovative investments to achieve diversification and sustainability.

Sustainability of donations as a source of income

Information from the author’s observations and interviews concur that the TCSA leadership and faculty appreciate the donations of the SVCC and the AOG churches because they are used to pay staff, resource the college and fund seminars and other programmes, which, together, enhance the service rendered to train students to serve the Church and society in and beyond Zimbabwe:

‘Because a college like TCSA is unlikely to survive purely on student fees in the current economic climate, the College will not survive without external funding. Since the college also does not have a viable Alumni association that could generate funds in the form of gifts and bequests, its primary source of funding must inevitably come from donors. However, the challenge is that the external source of funds is almost exclusively one donor – Sun Valley Community Church. The College will not survive, should SVCC withdraw its support. Also any expansion of the work of TCSA is limited by the ability of SVCC to sustain and increase its support. This whole arrangement is not healthy and is exacerbated by the fact that SVCC is a very small church in a poor area of Los Angeles.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

Without the generosity of the churches, the TCSA would be unable to pay its faculty and meet the costs of facilitating seminars. However, it is clear that aid is not guaranteed to continue for an unlimited time in the future, because it is determined by the availability, capacities, willingness and conditions of donors. Theological College of Southern Africa board chairperson said that:

‘[D]onations can play a significant role in supporting the college, especially in capital development and strategic initiatives. However, they should not be relied upon as the primary means of sustaining day-to-day operations. Sustainable institutions generate value through their products, services, and programmes. Donations should act as a catalyst – not the foundation – for sustainability. The college must increasingly develop self-sustaining income streams through its offerings.’ (Board chairperson, in an email interview on 17 June 2025)

One of the TCSA board members said that:

‘[D]onations are in different forms. Local donations from affiliated or mother bodies can be structured to perpetuate activities of the college as long as the mother church exists. Secondly, foreign donations are not reliable or sustainable because all donors have interests and they can change from time to time or try to divert the college to suit own interests.’ (Board chairperson, in an email interview on 17 June 2025)

In spite of this view, it may be that other donors could be equally generous supporters of the college’s cause to enhance the training of gospel workers in the absence of any selfish interests. Nevertheless, it is argued that donations are usually vulnerable to uncertainty and unsustainability (Sacristán López de Los Mozos, Rodríguez Duarte & Rodríguez Ruiz 2016) – aid lacks continuity, permanency, reliability and effectiveness (Elaya n.d.). Tagwirei argues that ‘donations are generally good, but unguaranteed, inconsistent, sometimes conditional and unreliable, thus unsustainable’ (Tagwirei 2022). Donations are historically enslaving, and they sometimes make recipients relax, as beneficiaries, instead of growing as contributors to the development of their institutions (Black 2018). Although these views are not contextualised to theological institutions, they are generalisable and equally applicable in this context. Some of the interviewees who contributed to this study but who preferred anonymity commented that aid must be appreciated and accepted with the understanding that it will always be temporary. Accordingly, diversifying funding sources would be a prudent strategy to reduce the unpredictability, dependency and unsustainability of donations.

Applying the theonomic reciprocity theory, it is prudent for the TCSA to diversify the generous assistance of local and foreign churches through investment to build self-sustainability. The prudence of investing given resources is confirmed by the parable of the talents in Matthew 25:14–29. I agree with Torsu (2020) that the man in the parable represents God, and slaves represent Christians and humanity at large, who should invest their resources to achieve inclusive sustainability. While helpers are still available, the TCSA leadership could seek donations to buy or build on land to house the college; they can rent out some offices and space to generate a sustainable income. Eventually, the college can grow its capacity to pay its staff and meet its operating expenses independently.

Sustainability of student fees as a source of income

Student fees are the other source of income of the TCSA. The Theological College of Southern Africa academic dean confirmed that ‘the current fees paid by students is very low and that affects quality and excellence’. As explained before, the fees are expected to cover operating expenses, such as the internet connection, telephone bills and remuneration of adjunct staff and faculty. Even though the student fees are very low, few students actually pay, or do so in time, while others defer their modules to next semesters. In an email interview on 06 June 2025, Dr Bosch said that:

‘[I]n the present economic climate of Zimbabwe, it is highly unlikely that TCSA could be sustained by student fees. Should the College increase fees to even 50% of the cost of running it, TCSA will lose all of its students. Pastors and young people, ambitious to enter the ministry just do not have the disposable income to pay market rates for their education. I do not see student fees contributing more than 10% of the College budget, unless the Zimbabwean economy changes dramatically.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

Similarly, the TCSA board chairperson said:

‘[W]hile student fees contribute to the financial base of any educational institution, they are generally insufficient, especially in the context of theological colleges in Zimbabwe under the current economic conditions. Many reputable colleges continue to struggle due to overdependence on tuition fees. Therefore, student fees should be seen as a supportive rather than primary source of income, requiring supplementary income-generating initiatives.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

Considering that Zimbabwe has, for decades, been beset by political and socio-economic crises, the majority of students are poverty-stricken and struggle to pay fees. According to Tagwirei (2024c), Zimbabwe faced an unsettling political and socio-economic catastrophe during the long reign of Mugabe and throughout the militarised rise of incumbent President Emerson Mnangagwa, who took power in November 2017, and the catastrophe has yet to abate:

Across the country, most people have lost a stable income as the economic crisis is forcing businesses to close. People largely work in the informal economy as vendors, ‘pirate taxi’ drivers (operating private cars without a business registration), waiters in back yard food courts and as security guards. (Manika 2025:n.p)

Therefore, it is argued that tuition fees can augment the smooth operation of an institution and fund development (Asha 2025). However, in spite of the TCSA’s fees being low, students still fail to pay. This means that TCSA students’ fees are an unsustainable source of income for the institution. During participant observations, the researcher observed that some students are sponsored by their local churches, which are also struggling financially. Such churches often fail to pay the college fees of the students they sponsor. A former student who had withdrawn from their studies said that ‘my church failed to raise funds for my fees, and I had no option besides quitting’. In addition, according to an AOG pastor, ‘for a faith-based and Church-owned theological training institution, some students feel that they should just learn without paying fees, so they don’t [pay]’. The notion that one can study without paying the tuition fees confirms the spiritualisation of theological training, which problematises the economic sustainability of institutions that provide training in theology in Zimbabwe. Complicating institutional sustainability further is the belief of some TCSA stakeholders that students whose fees are on arrears should not be prevented from attending from lessons, because the college serves God by being gracious. This means that some students will not pay their fees until the administration is despiritualised.

An AOG leader added that, in Zimbabwe, the enrolment of students at theological colleges is generally low because some people do not value theology studies. He said:

‘Some do not value it because they over-spiritualise ministry and think that God’s anointing and revelation is enough. Others enrol for studies that attract multiple career opportunities. Now theological studies are limited to pastoral ministry, and few related non-governmental working opportunities. So many tend to go for other courses that qualify them for paying job opportunities.’ (AOG deacon from Gokwe, in an interview on 10 June 2025)

In addition to over-spiritualising ministry, Zimbabwe is suffering from a general economic crisis (Ndakusiya 2025) which leaves very few graduates of theology employed and paid well – most graduates of other disciplines face the same predicament. Unemployment is reportedly around 90% (Moyo 2025). In this context, those who spiritualise theology do not value training, and the few who do enrol for training misunderstand their need to pay tuition fees in the same way that students pay for courses at other institutions.

Exploring strategies to build sustainability for theological institutions

After engaging informed TCSA leaders, board members, AOG national executive leaders, regional leaders, local church pastors and elders, as main stakeholders, through purposively sampled interviews, this study uncovered that the TCSA can strengthen its economic sustainability in Zimbabwe by applying theonomic reciprocity through diversifying its sources of income, establishing a financial mobilisation drive and a marketing and alumni team and renegotiating economic support from the AOG Church and other stakeholders. In this regard, interviewees suggested that the AOG Church should not own TCSA only in word, but in deeds, by making deliberate efforts to contribute to its economic sustainability. The Theological College of Southern Africa board chairperson said that:

‘[A]t present, the AOG does not treat TCSA practically as a strategic institution. Beyond theoretical and moral support, there is limited tangible investment in the sustainability of the college. The establishment of a Board is a commendable step, but it must be matched with a cultural and philosophical shift within AOG to recognise the critical role of theological education. Without such a shift, the long-term viability of TCSA remains uncertain.’ (Board chairperson, in an email interview on 17 June 2025)

The Theological College of Southern Africa Board chairperson said, furthermore, that:

‘[T]he AOG should formally recognise TCSA as a strategic ministry arm of the church and integrate its support into the church’s annual planning and budgeting processes. This includes allocating resources, championing enrolment from local churches, and incorporating TCSA into leadership development frameworks. Sustained investment – financial, strategic, and institutional – is key.’ (Board chairperson, in an email interview on 17 June 2025)

Additionally, he said that the TCSA must prioritise attracting and retaining qualified personnel by creating an environment that values excellence. For the TCSA Board chairperson, ‘this includes offering competitive remuneration, clear professional development pathways, and a supportive institutional culture. Human capital is central to institutional growth and sustainability’. All interviewees concurred that the college remains unsustainable because most of its local stakeholders tend to separate spirituality from economic and anthropological strategies. Yet, as Roseman (2003) suggests, spirituality must be married to economics and anthropology for stewardship to be realised in context. I agree with Roseman (2003:11) that humanity can advance the will of God better with diversified sources of resources than it could with a dependency syndrome. Hence, the wisdom of theonomic reciprocity. So, the TCSA should manage, invest and diversify available resources for sustainability. In view of this finding, the following subsections present what the TCSA and the AOG could do to build up TCSA’s economic sustainability.

Diversify sources of income

One of the main pillars of the TCSA, Dr Bosch, who initiated SVCC’s donations in the form of financial support to the TCSA, and who serves as an academic advisor and voluntary lecturer, confirmed the need for theonomic reciprocity by saying, ‘Diversify! TCSA cannot continue to rely on one donor. The AOG has not come to the table. There is no alternative but to actively seek support elsewhere’. In a detailed response to the call for sustainability, the TCSA board chairperson said that TCSA should:

‘[E]stablish clear value propositions for various stakeholders [churches, students, alumni, and donors], develop short-term training, online programmes, and certificate courses that can generate income, engage in targeted marketing and awareness campaigns to promote the college’s offerings, explore income-generating projects such as publishing, agribusiness, or consultancy services aligned with the college’s mission.’ (Board chairperson, in an email interview on 17 June 2025)

The Theological College of Southern Africa academic dean said that ‘the AOG should consider developing some supportive policy that can facilitate supportive action plans for the college’. By supporting other stakeholders’ views, a TCSA board member and one of the senior AOG pastors said that:

‘TCSA must engage in some income-generating projects like other theological colleges such as [Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe owned] Living Waters Bible College. Living Waters do commercial crop farming and animal husbandry to sustain the needs of the college.’ (TCSA Board member and pastor from Harare, in an interview on 09 June 2025)

While some of the informants did not respond, for unspecified reasons, those who contributed concurred that the TCSA should consider undertaking income-generating projects. Regarding developing some type of business, Dr Bosch recommended:

‘TCSA can sell membership of its library to non-students. Offer paid consultancy to local churches within and without the AOG, offer paid courses for local churches and districts on various theological topics, host and facilitate various theological conferences with an eye on generating income through them. Encourage Alumni to support TCSA financially, but also in promoting its training and using their influence in their respective church denominations to support TCSA in various ways.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

In addition:

‘The college should undertake robust and strategic fundraising initiatives, actively engaging the church leadership and congregations. Building partnerships with local and international donors and development organisations can also strengthen the institution’s material base. A deliberate capital development strategy, with clear targets and accountability mechanisms, will be essential.’ (Board chairperson, in an email interview on 17 June 2025)

Pitting the unsustainability of traditional sources of college income – donations and student fees – against the need for self-sustainability necessitates the integration of mainstream institutional management with economics. As Tagwirei asserts, ‘the customary heartland of economics (such as consideration, business, investment, profit and loss management) demands due attention, especially in the Zimbabwean context, where conventionalism incapacitates most takers-in’ (Tagwirei 2022). Thus, the need to diversify traditional institutional income is long overdue. Although the mission of the college is theology training, contextual challenges demand conceptualisation and integration of business in its theology training mission. The TCSA needs to engage in investments to advance and support its missionary work. Incorporating business in institutional mission stresses the redemptive potential of business beyond multiplying income sources to include the promotion of an inclusive approach to missionary work. By doing so, the college could afford to employ more faculty and administrative and general staff and sustain its main mission beyond its present state of vulnerability. It is clear that doing business in Zimbabwe is not a walk in the park. Even while acknowledging that the incumbent president preaches that ‘Zimbabwe is open for business, while hypocritically overseeing policies that constrain business operations and scare away local and foreign investors’ (Ndimandi & Moyo 2018), a venture into business remains essential to generate income that could contribute to institutional sustainability.

As exemplified by Living Waters Bible College, the Theological College of Zimbabwe (TCZ) has also diversified its income. The management of the TCZ realised that donations and student fees were not sustainable in the Zimbabwean context and started diversifying its revenue sources. The college opened some of its boarding houses to external students and their families and turned its swimming pool into a business venture for fish farming. Furthermore, the TCZ leases its hall and open spaces to churches for their Saturday and Sunday services. While these activities may not be enough to generate the income needed, the ventures do contribute revenue to the college and make a difference to covering college expenses and building economic sustainability, just as theonomic reciprocity inspires.

It is obvious that doing business leads to the risk of the college’s attention being diverted from its core business of theology training to profit-making. A solution could be that the theological college establishes a separate business unit that looks after its business ventures while reserving theological training management and faculty to focus on their main business. When separation and delegation of duties are adopted, the college can manage profit-making business effectively without diverting its attention from theology training.

Establish resource mobilisation teams

In addition to the aforementioned reciprocal suggestions for TCSA to achieve economic sustainability, research participants agreed that the college must employ staff to mobilise financial and material resources for the college. One of the interviewees who withheld their identity said:

‘I think TCSA should have a strategic resource mobilisation staff member who will be tasked to raise funds and material resources for the college. He or she should be best skilled in finance mobilisation, to engage the Church, local and foreign donors as well as other possible sources of resources. Without such person, we may continue talking of this same story until the college falls into history.’ (AOG Congregant from Bulawayo, in an interview on 08 June 2025)

One of the TCSA board members expressed a similar view: ‘the college needs a good finance mobilisation team and strategy, leverage on AOG church human resource base and mobilise resources’. Likewise, Dr Bosch said:

‘TCSA must employ a full-time fund raiser whose job would be to raise funds from various institutions and individuals inside and outside of Zimbabwe. He or she would be tasked with writing grants, doing presentations and networking. This post could be financed on a commission basis.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

We agree that, without personnel who can mobilise resources, building economic sustainability may remain a pipe dream. Seltzer (2014) refers to the significance of resource mobilisation for education institutions by stating that resource mobilisation:

[E]nsures the continuation of your organisation’s service provision to clients, supports organisational sustainability, allows for improvement and scale-up of products and services the organisation currently provides, organisations, both in the public and private sector, must be in the business of generating new business to stay in business. (Seltzer 2014:n.p)

Thus, it is recommended that the TCSA employs resource mobilisation personnel for the benefit of the college.

Build an alumni association

Interviewees also suggested that the TCSA should leverage its alumni to build its sustainability. In an emailed interview on 17 June 2025, the TCSA Board chairperson said that ‘TCSA should launch an alumni network to build long-term support and brand loyalty’. In an email interview on 06 June, Dr Bosch added that:

‘[B]uilding relationships with past alumni through events, newsletters and networking could be used to bring in regular small amount donations but also bigger amounts in the form of bequests. There are many successful models at Universities in SA [South Africa] and the rest of the world that could be emulated.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

An AOG pastor who withheld their name said that:

‘[T]he college can organise annual alumni conferences to update them about college developments, add value to their ministries through a short one-day seminar and request donations for the development of the college.’ (AOG Pastor from Harare, in an interview on 09 June 2025)

In reflecting on various contributions about alumni associations of other local and foreign institutions, it is clear that alumni can give back financial or material support for the college. Drawing from a study on the significance of alumni in the Zimbabwean context, Chadamoyo and Dumbu (2012) explain that alumni associations can be:

[I]nvolved in marketing the university, involved in recruitment of students, involved in career advisement, involved in fund raising activities, that is, making donations in cash or kind, looking for donors to provide services such as installing internet wireless connectivity at the region, unlocking their own resources such as books, computers and internet services for access by students, networking with local agricultural and mining companies e.g. Hippo Valley Sugar Estates and the Platinum Mining Company to make donations, holding meetings with current students and university management for purposes of clarifying issues. (Chadamoyo and Dumbu 2012:154)

In light of these comments, establishing an alumni association can be a feasible complementary strategy to build up the sustainability of the TCSA in Zimbabwe.

Renegotiate with stakeholders

Another recommendation is that the TCSA renegotiates with its stakeholders – mainly the AOG Church – to contribute whatever the church can to develop the college. In an email interview on 06 June, Dr Bosch said that the TCSA must have a ‘hard negotiation with the AOG. The AOG is the prime beneficiary of the work of TCSA yet, it makes no contribution. This must change’. The Theological College of Southern Africa board chairperson added that:

‘TCSA must position itself as a strategic asset of the Church. While the appointment of a Board is a good move, the next step is to drive cultural transformation within the church leadership, to foster appreciation and ownership of the college. One way is to institutionalise theological training within AOG, making TCSA the primary training ground for ministers. Other denominations have thrived by aligning leadership policies with their training institutions, ensuring loyalty, policy support, and consistent student intake–all of which contribute to sustainability.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

Similarly, the TCSA Board member said that:

‘[T]he AOG is the mother church and owner of TCSA. It should play a major role because it is the biggest beneficiary of the college. The AOG should find a way of putting TCSA in its budgets. AOG has endless meetings such as monthly, quarterly and annual conventions; it is painful to note that is no table is speak on TCSA, you wonder! AOG should embrace and cover TCSA in its educational policy as it does with its Nicholas Bhengu High School.’ (TCSA Board member from Harare, in an interview on 09 June 2025)

The board member’s views concur with that of Dr Bosch, who said that AOG should:

‘[A]ctively promote TCSA in the local churches, at least twice per month, possibly with a board, staff or faculty member speaking on what the College offers. Every regional and national conference should devote 15 minutes for a TCSA representative to speak on the work and needs of the college.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

Furthermore, Dr Bosch said that:

‘TCSA management should consider developing a “no pay, no play” policy. In other words, unless the AOG actually supports the works of TCSA in tangible ways, they should not have any say in the running of the College.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

A pastor from AOG Bulawayo explained that AOG support has been generally absent, mainly because of unresolved differences between the college and the Church.

‘There are issues that TCSA management and AOG [AOG] national leadership differ on, and until they sit down, talk and settle the issues, the situation may not change. TCSA management must make deliberate efforts to talk to AOG leadership to iron out issues, grow relations and build up the college.’ (AOG Pastor from Bulawayo, in an interview on 08 June 2025)

Nevertheless, the church cannot claim to be the owner of the college without supporting it. Dr Bosch said that there is need to:

‘[R]eplace the figureheads on the TCSA board with senior members of the AOG who have a passion for training and a vision for the college. Theological College of Southern Africa needs help, support, encouragement and finances, not bosses who waste time in meetings.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

In his view, board members should not represent only the AOG Church because the TCSA accommodates students from other denominations too:

‘[I]n addition to the above, influential leaders of other denominations should be recruited to serve on the board. At least half of the students are not AOG and since the AOG shows little interest in actively promoting TCSA, maybe the College should look elsewhere for support.’ (AOG Pastor from Gweru, in an interview on 07 June 2025)

While it could be beneficial for the TCSA to have more board members representing the AOG who have a spirit of ownership and responsibility, and no ulterior interests, incorporating board members from other churches whose members are students at the TCSA could attract diverse expertise and increased enrolment because the churches involved would feel they are appreciated. For the board to appreciate and support the TCSA better than before, interviewees suggested that board members must receive orientation:

‘[B]oard members should be required to spend at least two days on campus in Bulawayo, understanding the inner workings of the college before being allowed to sit on the board.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

An incumbent board member said anonymously that:

‘[T]he board can help or hinder the developments of the college if its members do not appreciate the nature and operations of the college. They should be familiarised with TCSA through some seminars. TCSA management recently held a general meeting with the board, which is commendable, but that should be regular. Meeting once and disappearing for long is not healthy for the college.’ (TCSA Board member and pastor from Harare, in an interview on 09 June 2025)

All in all, the interviews uncovered that the TCSA should renegotiate with the AOG to contribute financial, material and human resources. In addition to refining the board, a AOG pastor from Harare said that the church should encourage some of its leaders and members to volunteer their expertise for the college:

‘We have qualified and experienced people with theological, administrative, marketing and related expertise that can benefit TCSA. If TCSA board could call for volunteers to serve TCSA until it grows to employ full timers, that can make a big difference too.’ (AOG Pastor from Harare, in an interview on 07 June 2025)

Rebuild traditional income

While income could possibly be diversified through all the suggestions mentioned in previous subsections, reflection on interviewees’ views suggests that the college should continue to rebuild its traditional source of income, namely student fees. According to an AOG elder:

‘Students fees are determined by enrolment numbers. If TCSA boosts its marketing strategies, and if AOG church develops a policy which requires all ordained and licenced pastors and elders to undergo basic theological training, that can grow numbers and fees ultimately.’ (AOG elder from Masvingo, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

Speaking in an interview on 06 June 2025, Dr Bosch said that it is crucial for AOG church to require ‘all ordained and licenced pastors to have at least one year (certificate level) of theological training, actively facilitate the opening of satellite campuses, e.g. in Harare’. An AOG deacon from Midlands said that:

‘[T]uition fees may not be sustainable as students struggle to pay due to poverty in Zimbabwe, more numbers of students mean better payments even if not all manage to pay. So the college should not neglect fees, but redouble efforts to attract more numbers and generate better income through fees while diversifying its revenue.’ (Dr Bosch, in an interview on 06 June 2025)

The AOG Matabeleland North region has already implemented the abovementioned idea in Bulawayo, by calling for all untrained pastors, elders, deacons and their subordinate leaders to enrol for a crash certificate programme in theology, which takes place every Thursday and Saturday. Half the church leaders in the region attend, while the other half do not, discernibly because of differing conceptualisations of the importance of training – the majority are of the opinion that church leadership and ministry are spiritual and mainly enhanced by God’s anointing. Moreover, the fees payable by these students are highly subsidised because Matabeleland North region argues that it covers the TCSA office rental; hence, local church leaders must benefit from the college. While the subsidised fees are unsustainable for the college, and, to date, few leaders have enrolled for the programme, the arrangement must be appreciated because it inspires development; other regions of the church may eventually follow suit, which will increase numbers and enhance institutional sustainability, especially if the fees are reviewed to viable levels.

Implications of this study on transformation in higher education

This case study does not only depict lessons for theological training institutions; it portrays the significance of economic sustainability for the transformation of all institutions of higher education. It is understandable that contexts differ and realities vary from one institution to another and implications cannot be generalised. However, it is undeniable that the majority of institutions of higher education that depend on donations and student fees are not viable because their economy, governance, operation and development are determined by the availability, willingness and payments of donors and students. Considering that sub-Saharan Africa’s economic ‘growth is slowing, debt pressures are mounting, and donor assistance is declining’ (International Monetary Fund [IMF] 2025:n.p.), there is a need for institutions of higher learning to review, indigenise, control and diversify their sources of income to foster their economic sustainability. It should be kept in mind that if all or some students and donors decide not to pay or to delay or fail to pay fees, or make donations, every institution that depends on them will suddenly be incapacitated and would not be able to afford to meet overheads and other costs. Just as the IMF (2025) report warns sub-Saharan nations to be cautious, innovative, consistent and resilient in pursuing economic sustainability, this study reflects the same for all institutions of higher education. It uncovers the dangers that not only theological but also all institutions of education face when they depend on traditional sources of income – especially donations and student fees. Such sources of income, which are beyond the control of service providers, are time bombs. Donations and student fees often give institutions some comfort and lead to a dependency syndrome. Furthermore, reliance on donations and fees risks sudden institutional incapacitation when the funds are delayed or fail to arrive. When donors and students fail to pay, dependent institutions cannot cover the expenses related to their human and material resources and other expenses. Ultimately, this situation could cripple service delivery because workers are likely to leave in search of greener pastures and material resources wear out unless they are maintained. Consequently, this study implies that economic sustainability matters for all institutions of education, hence, the need for regular reviews of sustainability models, contextualisation and innovative diversification of income.

Conclusion

Theology training institutions are integral sources of transformational human resources for the Church and society beyond their locations in the contemporary global village. This case study of the TCSA unearthed that being reliant on traditional sources of income such as donations and student fees is unsustainable and risks discontinuity. Drawing from theonomic reciprocity theory and interviewees’ feedback, this study concludes that the TCSA and similar theological institutions can, and should, establish economic sustainability by diversifying their sources of income, establishing resource mobilisation teams, building alumni associations, renegotiating with stakeholders and rebuilding traditional revenue streams.

Acknowledgements

This article is based on research originally conducted as part of Kimion Tagwirei’s thesis in fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Practical Theology and Mission Studies ‘The identity of the Church and quest for her economic sustainability: A case study of the AOG BTG church in Zimbabwe’ submitted to the Faculty of Theology, Department of Practical Theology and Mission Studies, University of Pretoria, in July 2022. The thesis was supervised by Maake Masango and Zorodzai Dube. The supervisors were not involved in the preparation of this article and were not listed as co-authors. The manuscript has since been revised and adapted for journal publication. The original thesis is available at: https://repository.up.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/a3943b8a-01ee-430e-bbae-45c96042e5b9/content.

The author declares that no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced the writing of this article.

K.T. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Pretoria’s Research Ethics Committee (T016/21) and the North-West University Theology Research Ethics Committee (NWU-01338-25-A6).

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship or publication of this article.

Data sharing is not applicable to this article, as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References